August 2005

 

By Charlie Baggs and Juliet Greene
 

In many areas in the United States, it is just as easy to find a Thai lettuce wrap as it is a good hamburger. Ethnic flavors have permeated every sector of the American diet: hot and tangy, sweet and spicy, citrusy and fragrant -- we can't seem to get enough of them. So why should the soup category be any different?

Nearly every culture embraces soup. It is one of mankind's oldest culinary preparations and is connected with the discovery of pottery. In times of scarcity, soups were perfect for feeding many people from one pot.

Around the world, soup is a perfect application for ingredients that otherwise would go unused. The trimmings of onions, the short end of a carrot and the leaves of celery make perfect soup starters. In many cultures, people use fish heads and trimmings to make a fish stock, or fumet. In Italy, an otherwise discarded Parmesan rind adds one more level and depth of flavor to a chicken stock.

Common denominators
Understanding soup varieties, their key ingredients and what characterizes them from culture to culture can be simplified by looking at their basic flavors. To achieve a balanced flavor, product designers need to understand the intended flavor and application and prevent any one part of the soup from throwing the flavor off balance. We have all tasted soups that need more salt, but other times we can't figure out what's missing. However, typically, it's sweetness, acidity or salt. With these three components, formulators can always achieve a balance and flavor that pleases the palate.

The acidity, or pH, of a soup will have a major effect on the overall flavor. For example, a Mexican tortilla soup from the Yucatan is served with several garnishes. Fresh lime is the perfect garnish to brighten up the flavor and enhance the impact.

Sweetness, when in balance, can complement some soup flavors. For example, a lobster bisque has a sweet, lobster flavor with a hint of other aromatics, cream and sometimes sherry. The cream's sweetness complements the lobster flavor and brings out its natural essence. Another soup that sweetness plays a role in is a creamed-corn soup that is quite popular in Asia, where corn and cream both contribute sweetness.

The name of a soup often is derived from the intended flavor and color. For instance, consider a Mediterranean green lentil soup. We know that this soup will be a pale green, with lentils as its primary flavor. Next, research this particular soup and regional flavors to see what specific ingredients it contains. Olive oil, garlic, onion, cumin and cilantro are the flavors in this Mediterranean variety. Green lentil soup in the U.S. Midwest might use bacon or smoked ham as the flavor system and to supply fat. But first research and understand the regional gold standard to appreciate the intended flavor.

Salt flavor can come from a variety of regional ingredients. Italians might use Parmesan, Japanese use soy sauce or miso, and Thai use fish sauce. Throughout the Mediterranean, sea salt, feta cheese, anchovies and olives are used to enhance the overall flavor and provide a level of saltiness.

When researching the regional flavors and ingredients, look at each ingredient to determine its role. Balancing each component or ingredient is a challenging and subjective part of soup formulation.

The soup's garnish is quite often the signature ingredient. Sometimes, it provides an alternate texture or temperature in addition to taste. For example, sour cream used in a Russian borscht soup is cold and provides an acidic bite. The drastic color difference also looks attractive. Crispy tortilla chips, creamy avocado, crunchy diced raw onion and spicy chopped chiles provide color, texture and flavor to a Mexican chicken soup. Italians commonly drizzle the top of soup with extra-virgin olive oil. The oil floats on top, creating an aromatic essence that also adds flavor and mouthfeel. Bean sprouts, cilantro leaves and chiles make perfect garnishes served on the side of a clear, hot, Vietnamese broth-based soup. The sprouts add texture and the cilantro is aromatic, while the chile adds a hint of spicy heat and crunch.

Taking stock
The most-crucial element of a soup is the stock, broth or fumet, because it forms the foundation. "The Professional Chef" by The Culinary Institute of America notes three basic types of stocks: white, made by combining all ingredients with a cool liquid and simmering over gentle heat; brown, made by roasting or sautéing bones and mirepoix in enough fat to produce a rich, mahogany color before simmering; and fumets, made by sweating or smothering the main ingredients before simmering, often with white wine.

Other stocks use different base ingredients. A Singaporean chicken stock might consist of a whole chicken, ginger root, garlic and scallions. A Singaporean beef stock is prepared from beef bones, ginger, garlic, shallots, celery, carrots and dark soy. The soy adds rich, deep color and flavor, replacing the typical technique of caramelizing the meat and bones. This is a perfect example of how an ingredient can be used to develop flavor and color, rather than the cooking technique. Singaporean vegetable stock utilizes other aromatics, like lemon grass, as key ingredients to contribute distinctive flavor notes.

What really is the difference between stocks and broths? The answer is simple: meat. It's a European tradition, especially in France, to make stock bases with mirepoix, rinsed bones, aromatic spices and herbs. Broths, on the other hand, are made by simmering water or stock with meat, vegetables and the aromatics. The addition of meat gives a broth a slightly more-pronounced flavor compared to its stock counterpart. The other main difference between a stock and a broth is that a broth can be consumed just the way it is, while stocks are used as an ingredient in other recipes. In Vietnam, a simple stock, nuoc leo bo, made with a beef bones, ginger root and star anise, makes a versatile, light stock. A Vietnamese vegetable stock, nuoc leo rau cai, will contain carrots, cabbage, celery, and daikon radish. It's apparent that the combination of ingredients differs from region to region. Over the years, available ingredients in various combinations developed into today's traditional recipes.

Surveying soup types
According to August Escoffier in "Le Guide Culinaire," two main soup classifications exist: clear and thick. Clear soups refer to broth-based consommés or soups that have not been thickened by methods including, but not limited to, roux and bread crumbs. Within thickened soups, further classifications include puréed soup and cream soup. These categories are rather broadly defined. For example, miso soup and bouillabaisse both are clear soups, while vichyssoise and lobster bisque are thick soups.

Each cooking technique contributes a specific flavor. Caramelized proteins or carbohydrates create a savory building block or Maillard-browning effect. This will add to the richness and complete flavor profile. A well-rounded flavor profile can also come from a rich stock, aromatic vegetables and herbs, and simmering bones to extract rich flavors. Each technique creates a profile complemented by other ingredients to achieve the desired flavor.

Puréed soups. Hearty, puréed soups are typically made from starchy vegetables and legumes such as potatoes, beans or lentils. The main ingredient is simmered until fully cooked, at which time it is strained out, and all or part of it is puréed and then added back to the liquid to thicken the soup. These soups can be served plain, but usually are garnished with a buttery, seasoned crouton or complementary ingredient. Puréed soups appear in many ethnic cuisines, such as Indian mulligatawny and Cuban black-bean soup.

Cream soups. Generally, cream soups are made from a general formula of mirepoix, white roux and a liquid such as broth, stock, velouté or even milk. The soup is simmered and skimmed until the roux is cooked out and all the ingredients are tender. It is then puréed, strained through cheesecloth, seasoned and finished with cream. These velvety soups usually are garnished with separately cooked complementary vegetables or meats. Some examples of cream soups that follow the classic technique with ethnic flair are Thai pumpkin and coconut soup, Colombian avocado potato cream soup, and Ecuadorian locro. Some cultures replace cream with coconut milk.

Bisques. Traditionally, bisques are made from the shells and meat of crustaceans such as shrimp and lobster and thickened with rice, rice flour or bread. Some chefs use the term bisque to include puréed vegetable soups, or soups thickened with roux. However, this is not the classical definition, and the distinction between purées and bisques blurs in some cases.

Probably the most-famous bisque is lobster bisque with sour-cream garnish and sherry sidecar. Here, lobster shells are cleaned and rinsed and then sautéed and often flambéed with brandy, wine or other liqueur to create the main flavor profile. The remaining ingredients are added, simmered and skimmed as with a cream soup. The total soup simmering time should be 45 minutes to one hour, after which it is puréed, shells and all, and delicately strained through cheesecloth.

Like cream soups, bisques are garnished with separately cooked, complementary foods. Ethnic variations of a classic French bisque are Cajun crawfish bisque and Greek avgolemono soup.

Stews and chowders. Stews, a country-style meal in a bowl, typically resemble braises more than soups. Thick and hearty, they often are eaten with a fork as opposed to slurped with a spoon.

Stews generally use mature and well-exercised cuts of meats. Simmering these cuts for a long period of time breaks down their connective tissues. This renders these tough cubes tender and succulent. In addition to the basics, mirepoix and aromatics, a combination of stock and sauce is added as the cooking liquid for a stew. Roux is the usual thickener of choice. Because of the extended cooking time and the fact that the meat juices enhance the liquid, the result is an aggressively flavored sauce. Red meat, poultry, seafood and vegetables make wonderful starting points for stews.

Because inexpensive meat tends to be the toughest, this is one of the most-interesting areas to explore from culture to culture. In Yemen, in the southwest corner of the Arabian Peninsula, people make a spicy oxtail soup, akwa, that is simmered for a long time until the tail is tender. In Brazil, they use all parts of a pig, including bacon, the tongue, the feet and other meat, combined with vegetables and black beans, to create the national dish, feijoada; 101 variations exist for this famous stew. Other examples include Vietnamese pho bo beef stewed in broth and the Japanese New Year's soup, ozoni.

Chowder was traditionally used to make filling soups thickened with bread or biscuits. Today, the term   usually refers to a soup thickened with potato. Some insist that true chowder also has some sort of pork product, such as salt pork or bacon, as a main flavoring agent. Most chowders, such as New England and Manhattan clam chowders, are either milk- or tomato-based. Other popular chowders include Basque seafood chowder, Southwestern corn and pepper chowder, and Irish oyster soup.

Chilled soups. Often only thought of in winter as nourishment for a cold body, soups are perhaps even more effective as cool summer refreshment. Probably the most-popular cold soup is gazpacho Andaluz, a Spanish, tomato-based vegetable soup. Because of the salt, vitamins and water in gazpacho Anduluz, it was the perfect food for farmers at work in fields on hot summer days. ("Del gazpacho no hay empacho" is an old Spanish proverb: "You do not get an upset stomach from gazpacho.") In addition to tomato, the classic base contains bread, garlic, salt, oil and vinegar. For table service, the soup is served with many accompaniments, such as croutons, white bread, bell peppers, onion and ham.

Other popular chilled soups include French vichyssoise, made from leeks and potatoes, and lesser-known chilled Czech blueberry soup, Singaporean spiced carrot orange soup and Finnish rhubarb soup.

Trending toward global cuisine
Trends can include anything from enhanced food colors to preparation methods and even eating habits and diets. Some of the most-exciting trends are related to ethnic cuisines. Beginning with Italian, Chinese and Mexican, ethnic cuisines have taken American palates by storm. It is extremely common for Americans to have eaten tortellini en brodo, wonton and tortilla soups. Now, they crave the bolder, more-authentic flavor profiles of the aforementioned favorites, as well as those of less-well-known African, Thai and South American flavors such as peanut soup, tom yum goong and feijoada.

South and Central America. When they stormed into South America during the 16th century, Spanish conquistadors discovered an array of exotic foods that literally doubled the contents of the world's pantries and changed global eating patterns almost overnight. Brazilian and Argentine steakhouses have been popping up all over the country and provide the opportunity to try traditional dishes, such as feijoada and Argentine pumpkin stew. In the north, food tends to rely more heavily on potatoes, as in Colombian ajiaco potato and chicken soup and our favorite, Ecuadorian locro.

Ecuador is known for its wonderful Andean potatoes, which make up part of the regular local diet that also includes rice and meat. Soups are considered a specialty in Ecuador, and locro is one that is very special. Cooking onions in annatto butter gives the soup a beautiful orange hue. Potatoes then are cooked in milk with local peppers and cilantro and finally finished with cheese and an egg liaison (egg yolks tempered into a soup add an extra-smooth finish). Aji, a hot sauce that is a staple on every table, along with avocado and pickled onions, are the perfect garnishes for locro.

Mexico. The Spanish invasion and the resilience of the Aztec and Mayan Indians, combined with several indigenous ingredients, maps Mexican culinary history; the influence on the cuisine is remarkable. Mexico is rich with produce and indulgent ingredients -- the components of a flavorful cuisine. The à la minute preparation techniques associated with Mexican cooking enhance these fresh flavors.

The Mexican kitchen relies on the country's supply of fresh vegetables and is dominated by the tortilla. Product designers can experiment with some 50 species of bean and more than 140 different types of chile pepper, each with its own distinctive taste and appearance. In soup preparations, pasilla, chipotle and guajillo chiles add an earthy flavor, while the jalapeño adds a fresh spice. With Mexican ingredients -- like chiles, spices, citrus, aromatic herbs and fresh produce -- developing a knack for blending flavors and textures to enhance the taste experience is a true culinary adventure.

Mexican chicken soup and Mexican tortilla soup with queso fresco and avocado are two very different types of soup, and people often have very specific expectations for them. Traditionally, puréed tortillas thicken tortilla soup to make a thick, deep-reddish-orange saucelike soup. People   frequently confuse Mexican chicken soup that is topped with tortilla strips with a true tortilla soup. Combining leftover tortillas with tomatoes and sweet onions and topped with crumbled, local, fresh cheese and ripe, sliced avocado makes a simple, inexpensive and comforting soup.

Africa. African cuisine is a sophisticated adventure. From the warm flavors of the yam to the cool, sour juice of a Seville orange, the flavors of Africa tantalize. The yam provides a well-rounded sweetness and the sour Seville juice provides balance with acidity.

The styles of its Mediterranean neighbors, including Italy, France and Arabic countries, greatly influences Northern African cuisine. To the east, goat, beef or mutton stews are typical. To the west, the Atlantic provides fresh seafood, and the rainy weather is perfect for rice cultivation. In South Africa, a major staple is a version of corn meal or maize as a base for soup.

Peanuts originated in South America, but the Portuguese introduced them to Africa, where they gained great importance as a dietary staple. In West Africa, particularly, they became a nourishing, everyday food that is a key protein source. People would roast the peanuts to bring out more flavor and then cook them with local yams, okra, tomatoes and green leafy vegetables to make traditional West African peanut soup. Mint leaves and additional crushed peanuts make a great garnish.

Italy. In Italy, light soups, mainly based on broth, are generally served at the beginning of the dinner while rustic, chowderlike minestre, added to either pasta or rice, are thick and satisfying. In the mountainous regions of the Alps, the thick and satisfying barley soup, zuppa d'orzo, is common. The best known soup among the Italian minestre is minestrone (meaning "big soup"), done with beans and a mix of all seasonal vegetables.

In the central regions of Italy, many delicious soups of pasta with vegetables or legumes exist. Naples and the Campania region gave birth to a soup that was made famous in the United States by the Italian immigrants from that area. Minestra maritata, a rich soup made of meats (prosciutto, beef, sausage and pork), vegetables (cabbage, escarole, cicory and broccoli) and flavoring herbs (carrots, celery, onion and parsley), is known as "wedding soup," as it is a marriage of flavors. Fish soup also is very popular in Italy; every region has its own version.

Ribollita, like gazpacho, is thickened with bread. However, unlike gazpacho, ribollita is truly heart-warming and sticks to your bones. The local ingredients, Tuscan black kale and white beans combined with vegetables and country bread, make an extra-hearty soup that can be served the next day and "twice boiled."

Spain. Early Spanish settlers significantly influenced local cooking. In the first century, Phoenicians introduced methods of salt-curing fish. This technique is still used today in many soups and stews. The Romans promoted intensive cultivation of the olive, and Spain became the Empire's principal supplier of olive oil, as well as an avid customer. Arabs provided more-productive agricultural methods, boosted poultry farming, and introduced new methods for tuna fishing. They also introduced the concept of cold soups.

A variety of cold soups are refreshing, nutritious and satisfying on a hot summer day. A honeydew soup with a touch of lime and honey, blended to a smooth, pulpy texture, soothes parched tastebuds. A cold cantelope soup, with a touch of cayenne and balanced with a Riesling or other bright wine, also tastes first-rate.

Thailand. The history of Thai food begins with the temples of each small village. The temple is the center of the community and a place to gather food and show homage to Buddha. Regional foods include very saucy curries, stews and roasted meats. To the north, the foods are much simpler and include more rice dishes and green savory flavors, such as lemon grass, stews, noodles and hot pots. The southern areas offer seafood, sweeter flavors such as coconut, more desserts and fruits, and an abundance of vegetable varieties. Europeans brought chiles to Thailand from Latin America, which made their way north to become integral to Chinese Szechwan cooking.

The typical Thai meal blends seven flavor elements: hot, sweet, salty, sour, savory, dried and aromatic. At its most elegant, the resulting dish gives us texture sensations such as crispy and soft, and teases our palates with subtle hints of pickled, spicy and smoky flavors. These combinations make up the regional styles that give Thai food its characteristic flair.

Thai soups are extremely fragrant and really open Western eyes to new ingredients. Traditional Thai ginger chicken with coconut soup offers a lemony essence from lemon grass and kaffir lime leaves, while fresh limes bring out flavor. Spice comes from the Thai chile, which is often mistaken for Mexican serranos or red chiles, while galangal, a common substitute for ginger, adds bright crispness. To round out the acid and spice, a rich, creamy coconut milk cools and mellows the flavors. Fish sauce, made from fermented anchovies, is a staple in Thai cooking. This sauce is so critical that, if missing, the flavor can be flat. Finishing the soup with coconut milk translates these tantalizing flavors into a traditional cream soup. The garnish is almost as important as the soup itself -- fresh cilantro and lime slices are a must.

Japan. Japanese cooking and culture demands that each item stands alone with a dynamic flavor profile that begins with the freshest ingredients and ends with a simple preparation method that lets the natural flavor be the focus.

The experience of eating in Japan is not to fill the belly, but also to savor the moment and fill it with the love of life, family and tradition. To really understand Japanese cuisine is to focus on the food itself and train the palate to appreciate food in its most-natural state. This inviting and somewhat challenging cuisine does not rely on complex blending of flavors. Rather, it embraces simplicity and purity, emphasizing seasonal ingredients of the highest quality.

Miso soup was introduced to Japan around the seventh century. Miso originally came from China and was considered a luxury food enjoyed only by the wealthy. This true broth soup is based on traditionally made fermented soybean paste. However, it also can be made from rice, wheat or barley. Once the fermenting process is complete, everything is ground into a paste with a texture similar to that of peanut butter. Miso has great health benefits, such good vitamin B12 and protein levels. Some traditional garnishes for this very restorative soup   typically include tofu, seaweed and sliced green onions.

Soups go commercial
Ethnic soups, like most products, long have been popular in local ethnic restaurants, but adaptations now have brought them to fine dining. Today, many local chains, and particularly Chinese and Latin American chains, are making Americanized versions that appeal to the general public. Some of these chains' most-popular items are now offerings such as egg-drop or hot-and-sour soup, and gazpacho or tortilla soup. The industry still has some way to go, however, before it will be ready to commercialize the most traditional soups, such as locro and West African peanut soup.

Typical manufacturing methods for soups include dry-blending and batch-mixing in steam-jacketed kettles for retort, freezing and refrigerating, as well as aseptic processing and packaging. The invention of canning and the retort process gave the soup industry its start. Now, soups of all types are available in cans of various shapes, sizes and materials; some are the typical metal cylinders, but others are shaped like soup pots and cauldrons. In the early 1990s, the "homestyle" appeal of soup in glass jars hit grocery store shelves. Soups are also available frozen, refrigerated, hot off the steam table, in plastic pouches and containers, and as dehydrated powder mixes complete with particulate.

The industry has diversified the soup market. Now, the focus is on creating new and unique flavors, ranging from a simple chicken noodle to an Asian Thai chicken with coconut. The focus on developing a traditional gold standard, and then using that standard to simulate the traditional soup in a commercial product, will yield new, flavorful, commercialized ethnic soups. Ethnic soups come in multiple varieties, colors, viscosities, flavors, spices and the like. Italian wedding, Stilton and white port, tomato and orange, and oxtail all represent the ethnic trend. In some cases, manufacturers market their soups as multifunctional products: soup mix and a seasoning mix in one. The consumer just adds water to create a rich, soothing soup, or adds the seasoning to meatloaf or sour cream for a tasty dip.

Nutritious, economical soups are generally very versatile, comforting while indicating local flavors. They can be eaten almost anywhere, served hot or cold, sipped, spooned, or eaten with a fork. Just remember that, at the end of the day, to sell the product as a household staple and see repeat business, success will be all about the flavor.

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